Environmental Implications of Breastfeeding and Its Role in Attaining the United Nations SDGs
Abstract
Breastfeeding is widely recognized for its numerous health benefits for both infants and mothers. Remarkably, increasing breastfeeding to a universal level could potentially save up to 823,000 infant lives and prevent breast cancer in approximately 20,000 mothers each year. However, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) did not specifically highlight breastfeeding as a target. More specifically, its potential role in promoting environmental sustainability has been largely overlooked. This paper aims to delve into the environmental impact of breastfeeding and its contribution towards achieving the SDGs. It will bring to light the often-ignored links between breastfeeding and environmental impact. In situations where breastfeeding is not prevalent, infant formula serves as a replacement. However, the production, packaging, distribution, and consumption of these substitutes pose various environmental challenges. Additionally, the challenges in strengthening the implementation of the International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes and the need for global funding to promote breastfeeding practices are discussed as well. In a nutshell, joint effort and the strong role of government intervention in achieving the Global Breastfeeding Collective's target of a 70% exclusive breastfeeding rate by 2023, could impose a significant contribution into a broader sustainable development agenda.
Downloads
References
Amonkar, Y., Chowdhury, N., Song, Y., Wu, J. S., Vaidya, P., & Meinrenken, C. J. (2019). Life cycle GHG emission comparison of infant nursing using breast milk versus formula. Journal of Environmental Accounting and Management, 7(1), 59-72.
Andresen, E. C., Hjelkrem, A. G. R., Bakken, A. K., & Andersen, L. F. (2022). Environmental impact of feeding with infant formula in comparison with breastfeeding. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(11).
Baker, P., Santos, T., Neves, P. A., Machado, P., Smith, J., Piwoz, E., & McCoy, D. (2021). First‐food systems transformations and the ultra‐processing of infant and young child diets: The determinants, dynamics and consequences of the global rise in commercial milk formula consumption. Maternal & child nutrition, 17(2), e13097.
Baker, P., Smith, J., Salmon, L., Friel, S., Kent, G., Iellamo, A., ... & Renfrew, M. J. (2016). Global trends and patterns of commercial milk-based formula sales: is an unprecedented infant and young child feeding transition underway?. Public health nutrition, 19(14), 2540-2550.
Binns, C. W., Lee, M. K., Maycock, B., Torheim, L. E., Nanishi, K., & Duong, D. T. T. (2020). Climate Change, Food Supply, and Dietary Guidelines. Annual Review of Public Health, 42, 233–255.
BMJ (2019). Environmental cost of formula milk should be a matter of global concern. ScienceDaily. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/10/191002183657.htm
Bowie, M. H., Black, L., Boyer, S., Dickinson, N. M., & Hodge, S. (2016). Persistence of biodiversity in a dryland remnant within an intensified dairy farm landscape. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 40(1), 121-130.
Cernioglo, K., & Smilowitz, J. T. (2023). Infant feeding practices and parental perceptions during the 2022 United States infant formula shortage crisis. BMC pediatrics, 23(1), 320.
Clune, S., Crossin, E., & Verghese, K. (2017). Systematic review of greenhouse gas emissions for different fresh food categories. Journal of Cleaner Production, 140, 766-783.
Dadhich, J. P., & Smith, J. P. (2015). Carbon Footprints Due to Milk Formula. A study from selected countries of the Asia Pacific region. https://www.bpni.org/report/Carbon-Footprints-Due-to-Milk-Formula.pdf
FAO. (2010). Greenhouse Gas Emissions from the Dairy Sector: A Life Cycle Assessment; Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy.
FAO (2018). Climate change and the global dairy cattle sector: The role of the dairy sector in a low-carbon future. FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/8749a956-0725-414f-8c35-58a5db0c2b5c/content
FAO. (2019). The Global Dairy Sector: Facts; Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 2019
Hagemann, M., Ndambi, A., Hemme, T., & Latacz-Lohmann, U. (2012). Contribution of milk production to global greenhouse gas emissions: An estimation based on typical farms. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 19, 390-402.
Hastings, G., Angus, K., Eadie, D., & Hunt, K. (2020). Selling second best: How infant formula marketing works. Globalization and Health, 16(1), 1-12.
Headey, D., Heidkamp, R., Osendarp, S., Ruel, M., Scott, N., Black, R., Shekar, M., Bouis, H., Flory, A., Haddad, L., Walker, N., & Standing Together for Nutrition consortium (2020). Impacts of COVID-19 on childhood malnutrition and nutrition-related mortality. Lancet, 396(10250), 519–521.
IPBES. (2019). Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (Version 1). Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6417333
Joffe, N., Webster, F., & Shenker, N. (2019). Support For Breastfeeding is An Environmental Imperative. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 367, l5646.
Jones, G., Steketee, R. W., Black, R. E., Bhutta, Z. A., Morris, S. S., & Bellagio Child Survival Study Group (2003). How many child deaths can we prevent this year? Lancet , 362(9377), 65–71.
Karlsson, J. O., Garnett, T., Rollins, N. C., & Röös, E. (2019). The carbon footprint of breastmilk substitutes in comparison with breastfeeding. Journal of Cleaner Production, 222, 436-445.
Kramer, M. S., & Kakuma, R. (2012). Optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2012(8), CD003517
Linnecar, A., Gupta, A., Dadhich J., & Bidla N. (2014). Formula for Disaster: Weighing the impact of formula feeding Vs breastfeeding on environment. Breastfeeding Promotion Network of India.
Lutter, C. K. (2012). Short Communication. The International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes: lessons learned and implications for the regulation of marketing of foods and beverages to children. Public Health Nutrition, 16(10), 1879–1884.
Mahase E. (2022). Formula milk industry “misuses and distorts” information to manipulate parents, says report. BMJ, 376, 433.
Mameli, C., Mazzantini, S., & Zuccotti, G. V. (2016). Nutrition in the first 1000 days: the origin of childhood obesity. International journal of environmental research and public health, 13(9), 838.
Martin, C. R., Ling, P. R., & Blackburn, G. L. (2016). Review of infant feeding: key features of breast milk and infant formula. Nutrients, 8(5), 279.
Mekonnen, M. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2012). A global assessment of the water footprint of farm animal products. Ecosystems, 15(3), 401-415.
Piwoz, E. G., & Huffman, S. L. (2015). The impact of marketing of breast-milk substitutes on WHO-recommended breastfeeding practices. Food and nutrition bulletin, 36(4), 373-386
Pope, D. H., Karlsson J. O., Baker, P., & McCoy, D. (2021). Examining the Environmental Impacts of the Dairy and Baby Food Industries: Are First-Food Systems a Crucial Missing Part of the Healthy and Sustainable Food Systems Agenda Now Underway? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18, 12678. doi: 10.3390/ijerph182312678.
Rollins, N. C., Bhandari, N., Hajeebhoy, N., Horton, S., Lutter, C. K., Martines, J. C., Piwoz, E. G., Richter, L. M., Victora, C. G., & Lancet Breastfeeding Series Group (2016). Why invest, and what it will take to improve breastfeeding practices?. Lancet (London, England), 387(10017), 491–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01044
Statista (2023). Baby Milk & Infant Formula - Worldwide. https://www.statista.com/outlook/cmo/food/baby-food/baby-milk-infant-formula/worldwide
Smith, J. P. (2015). Markets, breastfeeding and trade in mothers’ milk. International Breastfeeding Journal, 10(1), 1-7.
The Lactation Network. (2020). 5 Environmental Benefits of Breastfeeding: Support Breastfeeding for a Healthier Planet. The LactationNetwork. https://lactationnetwork.com/blog/environmental-benefits-breastfeeding/
UNDP. (2022). The SDGs In Action. United Nations Development Programme. https://www.undp.org/sustainable-development-goals
World Alliance of Breastfeeding Action (2016). Breastfeeding:- A Key to Sustainable Development. UNICEF and WHO joint message for World Breastfeeding Week 2016. https://waba.org.my/archive/breastfeeding-a-key-to-sustainable-development-unicef-world-breastfeeding-week-2016-message/
World Alliance of Breastfeeding Action (2020a). WBW 2020 Action Folder. https://worldbreastfeedingweek.org/2020/wbw2020-action-folder/
World Alliance of Breastfeeding Action. (2020b). WBW 2020 : Support Breastfeeding for Healthier Planet.https://worldbreastfeedingweek.org/2020/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/action-folder-2020_A4-1.pdf
Whitehead. (2020). Dairy majors investing heavily as Vietnam ramps up milk production. DAIRY Reporter.
World Health Organization and the United Nations Children’s Fund. (1981). International code for marketing breastmilk substitutes. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/40382/9241541601.pdf?sequence=1
World Health Organization. (2009). Infant And Young Child Feeding Model: Chapter For Textbooks For Medical Students and Allied Health Professionals. https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/44117
World Health Organization. (2014). Global nutrition targets 2025: Breastfeeding policy brief. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-NMH-NHD-14.7
World Health Organization and the United Nations Children’s Fund, (2017a). Nurturing The Health And Wealth Of Nations: The Investment Case For Breastfeeding. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/breastfeeding/global-breastfeeding-collective/global-bf-collective-investmentcase.pdf?sfvrsn=3545408_5&download=true
World Health Organization and the United Nations Children’s Fund. (2017b). Global breastfeeding scorecard, 2017 : tracking progress for breastfeeding policies and programmes.
World Health Organization and the United Nations Children’s Fund (2021). Global Breastfeeding Scorecard 2021 : Protecting Breastfeeding Through Bold National Actions During The COVID-19 Pandemic and Beyond. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/348546/WHO-HEP-NFS-21.45-eng.pdf?sequence=1
World Health Organization and the United Nations Children’s Fund (2022a). Global breastfeeding scorecard 2022 : protecting breastfeeding through further investments and policy actions. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/365140/WHO-HEP-NFS-22.6-eng.pdf?sequence=1
UNICEF & World Health Organization. (2023). Global breastfeeding scorecard, 2023: Tracking progress for breastfeeding policies and programmes. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). https://www.unicef.org/media/150586/file/Global%20breastfeeding%20scorecard%202023.pdf
World Health Organization and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF (2022b) How the marketing of formula milk influences our decisions on infant feeding. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/352098/9789240044609-eng.pdf?sequence=1
United Nations (2022). The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2022 - https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2022/
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2011). The Surgeon General’s Call to Action to Support Breastfeeding. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK52682/pdf/Bookshelf_NBK52682.pdf
Vergé, X. P., Maxime, D., Dyer, J. A., Desjardins, R. L., Arcand, Y., & Vanderzaag, A. (2013). Carbon footprint of Canadian dairy products: Calculations and issues. Journal of dairy science, 96(9), 6091-6104.
Victora, C. G., Bahl, R., Barros, A. J. D., França, G. V. A., Horton, S.,Krasevec, J.,Murch,S., Sankar, M. J., Walker, N., Rollins, N. C., Allen, K., Dharmage, S., Lodge, C., Peres, K. G., Bhandari, N., Chowdhury, R., Sinha, B., Taneja, S., Giugliani, E., & Richter, L. (2016). Breastfeeding in the 21st century: Epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect. In The Lancet, 387(10017), 475–490).
Zisovska, E., Stamenkovska, M., & Gjurcevski, J. (2018). The impact of marketing on healthy feeding in infancy and childhood. Macedonian International Journal of Marketing, 8(2), 56-63.
